Digital Apollo

As Apollo 11's Lunar Module descended toward the moon under automatic control, aprogram alarm in the guidance computer's software nearly caused a mission abort. Neil Armstrongresponded by switching off the automatic mode and taking direct control. He stopped monitoring thecomputer and began flying the spacecraft, relying on skill to land it and earning praise for atriumph of human over machine. In Digital Apollo, engineer-historian David Mindell takes this famousmoment as a starting point for an exploration of the relationship between humans and computers inthe Apollo program. In each of the six Apollo landings, the astronaut in command seized control fromthe computer and landed with his hand on the stick. Mindell recounts the story of astronauts' desireto control their spacecraft in parallel with the history of the Apollo Guidance Computer. From theearly days of aviation through the birth of spaceflight, test pilots and astronauts sought to bemore than "spam in a can" despite the automatic controls, digital computers, and softwaredeveloped by engineers. Digital Apollo examines the design and execution of each of the six Apollomoon landings, drawing on transcripts and data telemetry from the flights, astronaut interviews, andNASA's extensive archives. Mindell's exploration of how human pilots and automated systems workedtogether to achieve the ultimate in flight--a lunar landing--traces and reframes the debate over thefuture of humans and automation in space. The results have implications for any venture in whichhuman roles seem threatened by automated systems, whether it is the work at our desktops or thefuture of exploration.David A. Mindell is Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering andManufacturing, Professor of Engineering Systems, and Director of the Program in Science, Technology,and Society at MIT. He is the author of Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computingbefore Cybernetics and War, Technology, and Experience aboard the USS Monitor.

David A. Mindell is Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing, Professor of Engineering Systems, and Director of the Program in Science, Technology, and Society at MIT. He is the author of Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics and War, Technology, and Experience aboard the USS Monitor.