Next-Generation Batteries and Fuel Cells for Commercial, Military, and Space Applications

Distilling complex theoretical physical concepts into an understandable technical framework, Next-Generation Batteries and Fuel Cells for Commercial, Military, and Space Applications describes primary and secondary (rechargeable) batteries for various commercial, military, spacecraft, and satellite applications for covert communications, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions. It emphasizes the cost, reliability, longevity, and safety of the next generation of high-capacity batteries for applications where high energy density, minimum weight and size, and reliability in harsh conditions are the principal performance requirements.
Presenting cutting-edge battery design techniques backed by mathematical expressions and derivations wherever possible, the book supplies an authoritative account of emerging application requirements for small, lightweight, high-reliability rechargeable batteries—particularly for portable and implantable medical devices and diagnostic capsules. It devotes a chapter to fuel cells and describes the three distinct types of practical fuel cells, including those that use aqueous electrolytes, molten electrolytes, and solid electrolytes.



Identifies critical performance parameters and limits of rechargeable batteries, including state of charge, depth of discharge, cycle life, discharge rate, and open-circuit voltage
Provides a foundation in the basic laws of electrochemical kinetics
Highlights performance capabilities of long-life, low-cost, rechargeable batteries, for particular applications in battlefield systems and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs )


A.R. Jha, author of 10 books on alternative energy and other topics, outlines rechargeable battery requirements for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). He identifies the unique materials for electrolytes, cathodes, and anodes that are most cost-effective with significant improvements in weight, size, efficiency, reliability, safety, and longevity. Since electrode kinetics play a key role in the efficient operation of fuel cells, the book also provides you with a foundation in the basic laws of electrochemical kinetics.

A. R. Jha received his BS in engineering (electrical) from Aligarh Muslim University in 1954, his MS (electrical and mechanical) from Johns Hopkins University, and his PhD from Lehigh University.
Dr. Jha has authored 10 high-technology books and has published more than 75 technical papers. He has worked for companies such as General Electric, Raytheon, and Northrop Grumman and has extensive and comprehensive research, development, and design experience in the fi elds of radars, high-power lasers, electronic warfare systems, microwaves, and MM-wave antennas for various applications, nanotechnology-based sensors and devices, photonic devices, and other electronic components for commercial, military, and space applications. Dr. Jha holds a patent for MM-wave antennas in satellite communications.

Current Status of Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells Rechargeable Batteries Fundamental Aspects of a Rechargeable Battery Critical Performance Characteristics of Rechargeable Batteries Capabilities of Widely Used Rechargeable Batteries in Commercial Applications Recycling of Batteries Toxicity of Materials Used in the Manufacture of Rechargeable Batteries Safe Toxicity Limits for Workers Three Main Characteristics of a Rechargeable Battery Cost-Effective Justification for the Deployment of a Specific Rechargeable Battery for a Specified Application Techniques to Improve Battery Performance in Terms of Weight and Cost Why Use Pb-Acid Batteries for Automobiles? Description of Flow Batteries Rechargeable Batteries Irrespective of Power Capability Rechargeable Batteries for Low- and Moderate-Power Applications Rechargeable Batteries for Commercial and Military Applications High-Power Batteries for Commercial Applications Critical Role of Ni-Cd in Rechargeable Batteries for Military Aircraft Benefits of Ni-MH Rechargeable Batteries for Military Aircraft Impact of Temperature on Discharge Capacity of Ni-MH Batteries Charging Procedure for a Ni-MH Battery Degradation Factors in Ni-MH Battery Performance Thermal Batteries for Aerospace and Defense Applications Batteries for Space Applications Rechargeable Batteries for Commercial Applications Ni-Zn Batteries for Commercial Applications Rechargeable Battery Requirements for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Test Requirements for Rechargeable Batteries Needed for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Predicting the Battery Life of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Performance Capabilities of Batteries Currently Used for Electric and Hybrid VehiclesBatteries for Low-Power Applications Batteries Using Th in-Film and Nanotechnologies TF Microbatteries Charge-Discharge Cycles and Charging Time of Low-Power Batteries Structural Configuration for Low-Power Batteries Most Popular Materials Used for Low-Power Batteries Low-Power Standard Cells Miniature Primary Batteries Low-Power Batteries Using Nanotechnology Paper Batteries Using Nanotechnology Fuel Cells Description of the Most Popular Fuel Cell Types and Their Configurations Types of Fuel Cells Conclusion References

Batteries for Aerospace and Communications Satellites Introduction Onboard Electrical Power System Electrical Power-Bus Design Configuration Solar-Array Panels Solar Panel Performance Requirements to Charge the Space-Based Batteries Battery Power Requirements and Associated Critical Components Solar-Array Performance Requirements Electrical Power Requirements from the Solar Arrays during Dark Periods Solar Panel Orientation Requirements to Achieve Optimum Power from the Sun Solar-Array Configurations Best Suited for Spacecraft or Communications Satellite Direct Energy Transfer System Cost-Effective Design Criterion for Battery-Type Power Systems for Spacecraft Method of Comparison for Optimum Selection of Power System for a Spacecraft Step-byStep Approach for Power System Performance Modeling Requirements to Determine I-V Characteristics Impact on Battery Electrical Parameters from Onboard Charging and DischargingSpacecraft Power System Reliability Failure Rates for Various System Components Failure Rate Estimation Reliability Improvement of the Spacecraft Power System Using CC and PWM Regulator Techniques Reliability Improvement of the Spacecraft Power System Using DET System, CC, and Battery Booster Techniques Weight and Cost Penalties Associated with Redundant Systems Total System Weight and Cost as a Function of Mission Length Reliability Degradation with the Increase in Mission Duration Increase in Weight and Cost due to Redundant Systems Ideal Batteries for Aerospace and Communications Satellites Typical Power Requirements for Space-Based Batteries Aging Eff ect Critical in Space-Based Batteries Performance Capabilities and Battery Power Requirements for the Latest Commercial and Military Satellite Systems Commercial Communication Satellite Systems Performance Capabilities of the Commercial Communications Satellite Systems Military Satellites for Communications, Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Target Tracking Military Communications Satellites and Their Capabilities DSCS-III Communication Satellite System Power Generation, Conditioning, and Storage Requirements MILSATCOM System European Communications Satellite SystemBatteries Best Suited to Power Satellite Communications Satellites Rechargeable Batteries Most Ideal for Communications Satellites Performance Capabilities of Ni-Cd Rechargeable Batteries for Space Applications Performance Parameters of Ni-H2 Batteries Performance Capabilities of Ag-Zn Batteries Space Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries Conclusion References

Fuel Cell Technology Introduction Classifications of Fuel Cells Aqueous Fuel Cell Using Specific Electrolyte Fuel Cells Using Semisolid Electrolyte Fuel Cells Using Molten Electrolyte Classifications of Fuel Cells Based on Electrolytes Performance Capabilities of Fuel Cells Based on Electrolytes High-Temperature Fuel Cells with Semisolid Molten Electrolyte Low-Temperature Fuel Cells Using Various Electrolytes Performance of Low-Temperature and Low-Pressure Fuel Cells Using Aqueous Electrolyte Output Power Capability of Aqueous Fuel CellsFuel Cells Using a Combination of Fuels Performance of Liquid-Liquid Fuel Cell Design Fuel Cell Designs for Multiple Applications Fuel Cells for Electric Storage Battery Applications DSK-Based Fuel Cells Using Hydrogen-Based DSK Electrodes and Operating under Harsh Conditions Performance of DSK-Based Fuel Cells with Monolayer DSK Electrodes Ion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Performance Specifications for IEM Fuel Cells and Batteries for Space Applications Fuel Cells Using Low-Cost, Porous Silicon Substrate Materials Hydrogen-Oxygen Power Fuel Cell Using Porous Silicon Structure Fuel Cell Reactions and Thermodynamic Efficiencies DMFC Devices Using a PEM Structure Silicon-Based DMFC Fuel Cells Potential Applications of Fuel Cells Fuel Cells for Military and Space Applications Fuel Cells for Battlefi eld Applications Deployment of Fuel Cells in UAVs Acting as Electronic Drones Capable of Providing Surveillance, Reconnaissance, Intelligence Gathering, and Missile Attack Capabilities Why Fuel Cells for Counterinsurgency Applications? Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications Performance Capabilities and Limitations of All-Electric Aircraft or Vehicles Fuel Cells for Electric Vehicles and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Fuel Cells for Commercial, Military, and Space Applications Fuel Cells for Automobiles, Buses, and Scooters Low-Cost, High-Efficiency, Low-Temperature H2-O2 Fuel Cells Design Aspects and Performance Parameters of a Low-Cost, Moderate-Temperature Fuel Cell Design Requirements for Cost-Effective Fuel Cells Ideal Fuel Cells for the Average Homeowner Design Requirements for Fuel Cells for Homeowners Compact Fuel Cells for Cars, Scooters, and Motor Bikes Fuel Cells for Portable Electric Power Systems Fuel Cells Capable of Operating in Ultra-High-Temperature Environments Types of Materials Used in Ultra-High-Temperature Fuel Cells Solid Electrolyte Most Ideal for Fuel Cells Operating at Higher Temperatures (600–1,000°C) Molten Electrolytes Offer Improved Efficiencies in High-Temperature Operations Performance Capability of Porous Electrodes Electrode Kinetics and Their Impact on High-Power Fuel Cell Performance Polarization for Chemisorption-Desorption Rates Fuel Cell Requirements for Electric Power Plant Applications Performance Requirements of Fuel Cells for Power Plants Summary References

Batteries for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Introduction Chronological Development History of Early Electric Vehicles and Their Performance Parameters Electric-Based Transportation Means Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Developed Earlier by Various Companies and Their Performance Specifications ZAPTRUCK ZAP ALIAS Aptera Motors Tesla Motors Baker Motors Development History of the Latest Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Types and Their Performance Capabilities and Limitations GM Chevy Volt Ford Ford Focus Ford Escape Ford C-Max and Ford C-Max Energi Nissan Performance Requirements of Various Rechargeable Batteries Battery Pack Energy Requirements Battery Materials and Associated Costs Materials for Rechargeable Batteries Deployed in EVs and EHVs Impact of Road and Driving Conditions on Battery Charging Times and Costs Materials for Rechargeable Batteries Materials Requirements for Three Functional Components of the Li-Ion Battery Anode Cathode Electrolyte Major Performance Characteristic of Li-Ion Batteries Characteristic of Nickel-Metal-Hydride Rechargeable Batteries Zinc-Air Rechargeable Fuel Cells for EVs and HEVs Energy Density Levels for Various Rechargeable Batteries Li-Ion Battery Pack Configuration Some Unique Problems Associated with Li-Ion Battery Packs Design Concept Incorporating the Smart Grid Technology Charging-Load Impact on the Utility Gridlines Typical Charging Rates for Rechargeable Battery Packs and Electrical Load Materials and Their Properties Best Suited for Rechargeable Batteries Major Material Costs for a 100 Ah High-Energy Rechargeable Battery Pack Estimated Costs for Battery Packs Widely Used in All-Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Impact of Component Costs on the Procurement Cost of Battery Packs Estimated Current and Future Component Costs Material Cost Estimates Critical Role of Rare Earth Materials in the Development of EVs and HEVs Identification of Various Rare Earth Materials Used in EVs and HEVs Impact of Future Rare Earth Materials on the Performance of EVs and HEVs Costs Associated with Refining, Processing, and Quality Control Inspection of Rare Earth Materials Conclusion References

Low-Power Rechargeable Batteries for Commercial, Space, and Medical Applications Introduction Low-Power Battery Configurations Low-Power Batteries Using Cylindrical Configuration Carbon-Zinc Primary Low-Power Batteries and Their Characteristics Performance Capabilities and Limitations of Alkaline Manganese Batteries History of Primary Lithium-Based Batteries and Their Performance Parameters Nickel-Metal-Hydride, Nickel-Cadmium, and Lithium-Ion Rechargeable Batteries Peculiarities in Rechargeable Batteries Design Considerations for Small Low-Power Rechargeable Batteries Frequent Mathematical Expressions Used in the Design of Batteries Contributing Factors to Battery Weight Batteries for Miniaturized Electronic System Applications Brief Description of Rechargeable Batteries Best Suited for Embedded-System Applications Characteristics of an Alkaline Battery for a Simple Embedded-System Application Performance Characteristics of a Battery Best Suited for the Least Complex Embedded-System Application Characteristics of a Battery Best Suited for the Most Complex Embedded-System Application Battery Suitability and Unique Performance Requirements for Aerospace Applications Potential Applications of Lithium, Alkaline, and Zinc-Air Batteries Batteries for Medical Applications Recently Developed Batteries for Specific Medical Applications Performance Characteristics of Li-I2 Batteries Microbattery and Smart Nanobattery Technologies Incorporating Lithium Metal for Medical and Military Applications Smart Lithium-Ion Batteries Low-Power Zinc-Air, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Nickel-Cadmium Rechargeable Batteries Zinc-Air Rechargeable Batteries Nickel-Cadmium Rechargeable Batteries Nickel-Metal-Hydride Rechargeable BatteriesSelection Criteria for Primary and Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries for Specific Applications How to Select a Battery for a Particular Application Conclusion References

Rechargeable Batteries for Military Applications Introduction Potential Battery Types for Various Military System Applications Aluminum-Air Rechargeable Batteries for Military Applications Description of Key Elements of These Batteries Performance Capabilities, Limitations, and Uses of Saline Batteries Performance Capabilities and Uses of Alkaline Batteries Bipolar Silver-Metal-Hydride Batteries for Military Applications Rechargeable Silver-Zinc Batteries for Military Applications Low-Power Batteries for Various Applications Thin-Film Microbatteries Using MEMS Technology Microbatteries Using Nanotechnology Concepts Critical Design Aspects and Performance Requirements for Thin-Film Microbatteries High-Power Lithium and Thermal Batteries for Military Applications Materials Requirements for Cathode, Anode, and Electrolyte Best Suited for High-Power Batteries Cathode Materials and Their Chemistries Anode Materials and Their Chemistries Electrolytes and Their Chemistries Design Requirements for Thermal Batteries for Specific Applications Design Requirements for TB1 Battery Systems Design Requirements for TB2 Battery Systems Environmental Requirements for Thermal Battery Systems Structural Description of the Batteries and Their Physical Parameters Actual Values of Performance Parameters Obtained through Laboratory Testing Conclusive Remarks on Th ermal Battery Systems High-Power Rechargeable Batteries for Underwater Vehicles Performance Capability and Design Aspects of Li-SO2Cl2 Battery Systems Characteristics of Electrolytes Required to Achieve Improvements in Electrochemistry Effects of Thermal Characteristics on the Flowing Electrolyte Output Power Variations as a Function of Discharge Duration in Volta Stack Batteries Using Flowing Electrolytes Impact of Temperature and DOD on the Thermal Conductivity and the Specific Heat of the Electrolytes Used in Thermal Batteries Impact of Discharge Duration on the Battery Power Output Electrolyte Conductivity and Optimization of Electrolyte High-Power Battery Systems Capable of Providing Electrical Energy in Case of Commercial Power Plant Shutdown over a Long Duration What Is a Vanadium-Based Redox Battery? Potential Applications of Vanadium-Based Redox Batteries Structural Details and Operating Principles of Vanadium-Based Redox Batteries Batteries Best Suited for Drones and Unmanned Air Vehicles Battery Power Requirements for Electronic Drones Battery Requirements for UAVs Batteries for Countering Improvised Explosive Devices History of Property Damage and Bodily Injury to Soldiers Anti-IED Techniques to Minimize Property Damage and Injury to Soldiers Battery Performance Requirements for Dismounted Anti-IED Systems Conclusion References

Batteries and Fuel Cells for Aerospace and Satellite System Applications Introduction Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries for Commercial and Military Applications Optimum Charge, Discharge, and Storage Conditions for Lead-Acid Batteries Pros, Cons, and Major Applications of Lead-Acid Batteries Life Cycle of SLABs for Aircraft Applications Effect of Depth of Discharge on Life Cycle of the Lead-Acid Battery Aluminum-Air Batteries for Aerospace Applications Performance Capabilities and Limitations of Al-Air Batteries Impact of Corrosion on Al-Air Battery Performance as a Function of Anode Current Density Outstanding Characteristics and Potential Applications of Al-Air Rechargeable Battery Systems Long-Life, Low-Cost, Rechargeable Silver-Zinc Batteries Best Suited for Aerospace and Aircraft Applications Vented Secondary Batteries Best Suited for Aircraft and Aerospace Applications Typical Self-Discharge Characteristics of an Ag-Zn Battery Safety, Reliability, and Disposal Requirements for Ag-Zn Batteries Typical Battery Voltage Level and Cycle Life SLABs for Commercial and Military Aircraft Applications Performance Aspects of SLABs Performance of the EaglePicher Battery Ultralife UB1-2590 SLAB from EaglePicher for Commercial Applications Test Procedures and Conditions for SLABs Impact of Charge Rate and Depth of Discharge on the Cycle Life of SLABs Life-Cycle Test Conditions Thermal Battery for Aircraft Emergency Power and Low-Earth-Orbiting Spacecraft Performance Capabilities of LiAl/FeS2 Thermal Batteries Rechargeable Batteries for Naval Weapon System Applications Performance Characteristics of Li-SOCL2 Batteries Thermal Battery Design Confi gurations and Requirements for Launch Vehicle Applications Design Aspects and Performance Capabilities of Advanced Thermal Batteries Unique Performance Capabilities of Thermal Batteries High-Temperature Lithium Rechargeable Battery Cells Unique Performance Parameters and Design Aspects of Solid Electrolyte Cells Solid Electrolyte Technology for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries Critical Role of Solid Electrolytes Improvement in Performance Parameters of Lithium Rechargeable Batteries Impact of Lithium Chloride Oxide Salt Concentration in the Solution of Liquid Plasticizer on Room-Temperature Ionic Conductivity Rechargeable Batteries for Electronic Drones and Various UAVs Performance Requirements for Batteries Best Suited for Electronic Drone Applications Rechargeable Battery Requirements for UAVs, Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, and MAVs Rechargeable Batteries for Glider Applications Rechargeable Batteries for Space-Based Military Systems and Satellite Communications Rechargeable Battery Requirements for Military Space-Based Sensors Requiring Moderate Power Levels High-Power Fuel Cells for Satellites with Specific Missions Performance of the MSK Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell for Communications Satellite Applications Classification of Fuel Cells Based on the Electrolytes Performance Parameters of Fuel Cells Using Various Fuels and Their Typical Applications Comparing Fuel Cell Parameters Battery Sources for Spacecraft Applications Application of the First Principle Model to Spacecraft Operations for Aging Typical Performance Characteristics of the 40 Ah Sodium-Sulfur Battery Cell Conclusion References

Low-Power Batteries and Their ApplicationsIntroduction Performance Capabilities of Lithium-Based Batteries for Low-Power Applications Benefi ts of Solid Electrolytes in Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries Total Conductivity of the Battery Material Batteries for Low-Power Electronic Devices Impact of Materials and Packaging Technology on Battery Performance Glossary of Terms Used to Specify Battery Performance Parameters Fabrication Aspects of Batteries for Low-Power Electronic Device Applications Performance Capabilities and Limitations of Various Primary and Secondary Batteries for Low-Power Applications Carbon-Zinc Primary Batteries Alkaline-Manganese Batteries Performance Capabilities of Primary Lithium Batteries Lithium-Iodine Batteries LiMnO2 Battery Lithium-Carbon Fluoride Battery Lithium-Sulfur-Dioxide Battery Lithium-Thionyl-Chloride Battery Lithium-Ferrous Sulfide (Li-FeS2) Battery Conclusions on Lithium-Based BatteriesApplications of Small Rechargeable or Secondary Cells Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries Small Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries S-Ni-Cd Rechargeable Batteries Nickel-Metal-Hydride Rechargeable Batteries Lithium-Polymer-Electrolyte Cells Thin-Film Batteries, Microbatteries, and Nanobatteries Structural Aspects and Performance Capabilities of Thin-Film Batteries Thin-Film Metal-Oxide Electrodes for Lithium-Based Microbatteries Performance Capabilities and Applications of Microbatteries Electrical Performance Parameters of Nanobatteries Applications of Nanomaterials, Carbon-Nanotubes, and Carbon-Nanotube Arrays in Development BatteriesBatteries for Health-Related Applications Battery Requirements for Cardiac Rhythm–Detection Applications Various Batteries Used to Treat Cardiac Diseases Li-Ion Batteries Best Suited Primarily for Medical Devices Used to Treat Cardiac Diseases and to Detect Unknown Ailments Li-I2 Batteries for Treating Cardiac Diseases Li-AgVO2 Batteries for Treatment of Cardiac Diseases Batteries for Critical Diagnostic Procedures Batteries for the Total Artificial Heart Major Benefi ts of Li-Ion Batteries Used for Various Medical Applications Limitations of Li-Ion Batteries Cell-Balancing Requirements for Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery Packs Active-Balancing Technique Conclusion
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